On Zhu Xi's Theoretical Construction and Core Significance of "Self-Cultivation of Virtue"

— With Reference to the Inheritance, Differentiation, and Historical Orientation of the Two Cheng Brothers' Thought on Self-Cultivation

I. Introduction

"Self-cultivation of virtue" (hanyang dexing) is the core proposition of Song-Ming Neo-Confucian cultivation theory and the fundamental practical path by which Confucianism realizes the ideal of "inner sageliness and outer kingliness" (nei sheng wai wang). The category was first articulated systematically by the two Cheng brothers; through Zhu Xi's reconstruction, expansion, and refinement, it became the governing program of moral formation, moral education, and political governance.

The two Chengs discerned "Heavenly Principle" (tianli) and established it as the cosmic-ontological foundation and ultimate ground of morality. They were the first to identify "self-cultivation" (hanyang) explicitly as the central task of moral cultivation, proposing the classical formula that "self-cultivation requires reverential respect; the advancement of learning lies in the extension of knowledge" (hanyang xu yong jing, jinxue ze zai zhi zhi). This set the basic framework of "maintaining reverential respect and investigating principle" (ju jing qiong li) for later Confucianism. Yet the brothers' differing temperaments and intellectual emphases produced significant divergence: Cheng Hao leaned toward a natural, sincere reverence that collapses ontology into practice, while Cheng Yi stressed the disciplined, restraining work of maintaining reverence. Neither fully resolved how self-cultivation integrates activity and tranquility, the State of Equilibrium and the State of Harmony, or how it couples deeply with the practice of extending knowledge. Their framework remained suggestive rather than fully grounded.

Zhu Xi lived through an era of sharp intellectual differentiation in the Southern Song. He confronted the Lu-Wang school of mind (xinxue) represented by Lu Jiuyuan, which advocated "inventing the original mind" (faming benxin) and tilted toward simplified sudden enlightenment. Some Confucians indulged in empty meditation and neglected the practical cultivation of daily human relationships. Buddhist and Daoist teachings were widespread, and their practices of "empty talk on mind-nature" and "rejecting human relationships" steadily eroded the Confucian moral foundation centered on Heavenly Principle. Meanwhile, the Neo-Confucian successors after the two Chengs tended to swing to one extreme—either focusing exclusively on self-cultivation while neglecting the investigation of principle, or emphasizing the investigation of principle while lacking any foundation in self-cultivation—leaving practical cultivation fragmented and incoherent.

Against this backdrop, Zhu Xi built upon the two Chengs, integrating Zhang Zai's thesis that "the mind commands nature and feelings" (xin tong xing qing) and Li Tong's teaching of "sitting silently to purify the mind and realizing Heavenly Principle" (mo zuo cheng xin, ti ren tian li). Taking "reverential respect" as his unifying thread, he elevated the self-cultivation of virtue from a single technique to the core theory underwriting the entire Confucian virtue ethics, reshaping the scholar-official ethos, and resisting heterodox teachings. In doing so, he brought the systematic construction of Neo-Confucian cultivation theory to completion.

Drawing on Neo-Confucian primary sources and later scholarship, this article first traces the connections and distinctions between the two Chengs' and Zhu Xi's thought on self-cultivation, then analyzes the underlying reasons for Zhu Xi's emphasis from four levels: the internal logic of the virtue system, the practical value of moral education, the need to rectify the academic ethos of the time, and the theoretical mission of defending Confucian orthodoxy.

II. Intellectual Origins and Theoretical Divergences: The Two Chengs on "Self-Cultivation of Virtue" and Their Influence on Zhu Xi

Zhu Xi's thought on self-cultivation of virtue traces directly to the learning of reverential respect (jing xue) of the two Cheng brothers. The Chengs jointly established "maintaining reverential respect" (zhu jing) as the core of self-cultivation, but their theoretical orientations diverged sharply, becoming the two major sources from which Zhu Xi, through critical selection and synthesis, constructed his own systematic theory.

2.1 The Two Chengs' Basic Discourse on Self-Cultivation of Virtue

Taking Heavenly Principle as their metaphysical foundation, the two Chengs held that virtue is the embodiment of Heavenly Principle in human beings. Because humans are obscured by the partiality of their physical endowment (qi bing) and the desires of things, their inherent good nature cannot manifest fully. It is therefore necessary to transform the physical endowment through cultivation, restore and illuminate Heavenly Principle, and attain the moral realm in which "nature governs feelings" (xing qi qing). The brothers' paths to this end, however, were fundamentally distinct.

2.1.1 Cheng Hao: Preserving Unitary Virtue through Sincere Reverence, Emphasizing the Integration of Ontological Realm

Cheng Hao's philosophy takes "humaneness" (ren) as its core ontology. He advocates the view that "the humane person forms one body with all things" (ren zhe hun ran yu wu tong ti), positing the mind of humaneness as the moral ontology interconnecting heaven, earth, and the myriad things. For Cheng Hao, the essence of virtue lies in the conscious preservation of this inherent mind of humaneness. Self-cultivation does not require deliberate effort or the inspection and restraint of selfish desires; rather, one must first, through introspective realization, apprehend the ontological mind of humaneness that identifies oneself with all things, and then preserve this ontology with "sincere reverential respect" (cheng jing). As the mind becomes full and harmonious, selfish thoughts naturally dissipate and the original mind is no longer obscured.

Cheng Hao distinguished "sincerity" (cheng) from "reverential respect" (jing), proposing that "sincerity is the Way of Heaven; reverential respect is the foundation of human affairs" (cheng zhe tian zhi dao, jing zhe ren shi zhi ben). Reverence, in his view, is the practice that connects the human way with the Way of Heaven—the functioning of the substance of sincerity. So long as one preserves the substance of humaneness with sincere reverence, ontology and practice are directly integrated, and no further investigation or restraint is needed. In his Letter on Understanding Humaneness (Shi Ren Pian), he writes: "The learner must first understand humaneness. The humane person forms one body with all things; rightness, propriety, wisdom, and trustworthiness are all humaneness. Having understood this principle, one need only preserve it with sincere reverential respect—no inspection or investigation is necessary" (Xue zhe xu xian shi ren. Ren zhe, hun ran yu wu tong ti, yi li zhi xin jie ren ye. Shi de ci li, yi cheng jing cun zhi er yi, bu xu fang jian, bu xu qiong suo). Within this framework, self-cultivation is a realm-oriented praxis that identifies ontology with practice, stressing inward ontological realization while slighting the acquired learning of principles and the deliberate regulation of daily conduct. Though simple and direct, it readily degenerates into Chan-style sudden enlightenment.

2.1.2 Cheng Yi: Taking Maintaining Reverence as the Essence of Self-Cultivation, Mutual Support of Reverence and Rightness to Substantiate Virtue

Cheng Yi is the de facto founder of Neo-Confucian self-cultivation theory. He proposed the classical proposition that would shape later thought for a millennium: "Self-cultivation requires reverential respect; the advancement of learning lies in the extension of knowledge" (hanyang xu yong jing, jinxue ze zai zhi zhi), clearly demarcating self-cultivation from the extension of knowledge and establishing a framework of dual parallel advancement.

Cheng Yi defined reverence as "focusing on one thing without diversion" (zhu yi wu shi): the mind possesses a master, is concentrated and unwavering, excludes selfish thoughts, and sustains a state of solemn gravity, vigilance, and non-dissipation. He stressed that "reverential respect is simply the way of holding oneself" (jing zhi shi chi ji zhi dao)—an inward praxis of self-restraint and self-mastery. Unlike Buddhist meditative practice that empties the mind, it requires constant vigilance over oneself, rectifying the orientation of the mind so that one is neither led astray by external things nor confused by selfish desires, thereby preserving and nurturing the inherent good nature.

Cheng Yi further advocated the mutual reinforcement of reverence and rightness (jing yi jia chi), holding that self-cultivation and the extension of knowledge are complementary. Mere inward self-cultivation cannot yield complete virtue; it must be supplemented by the external study of things to attain knowledge. Self-cultivation employs reverence to discipline the mind-nature and prevent mental dissipation, clearing the subjective obscuration for the investigation of principle. The extension of knowledge, through studying the classics of sages and worthies, examining the deeds of historical figures, and engaging with daily affairs, thoroughly investigates the principles of things as they ought to be and the reasons why they are so. As he puts it: "Reverential respect is simply the way of holding oneself; rightness consists in knowing what is right and what is wrong. To act in accordance with principle is rightness. If one merely adheres to reverential respect without knowing how to accumulate rightness through practice, then nothing whatsoever is accomplished" (Jing zhi shi chi ji zhi dao, yi bian zhi you shi you fei. Shun li er xing, shi wei yi ye. Ruo zhi shou yi ge jing, bu zhi ji yi, que shi dou wu shi ye). Only by combining the inward restraint of maintaining reverence with the outward investigation of principle through the accumulation of rightness—advancing both inwardly and outwardly—can Heavenly Principle be truly internalized as stable virtue, preventing self-cultivation from degenerating into empty, silent preservation of the mind.

Finally, Cheng Yi took the transformation of the physical endowment (bianhua qizhi) as the fundamental goal of self-cultivation. Inheriting Zhang Zai's distinction between "the nature of Heaven and Earth" (tiandi zhi xing) and "the physical nature" (qizhi zhi xing), he held that the nature of Heaven and Earth is pure and perfectly good, yet from birth human physical endowments differ in clarity and turbidity, partiality and uprightness. Turbid qi and partial nature obscure the manifestation of Heavenly Principle and give rise to unwholesome actions. The work of self-cultivation consists precisely in the continuous restraint of maintaining reverence, gradually transforming and refining the physical endowment, eliminating its dross, and dispelling the obscuration of material desires, so that the inherent nature of Heaven and Earth can gradually manifest as concrete moral qualities.

2.2 Zhu Xi's Inheritance and Systematic Integration of the Two Chengs' Thought on Self-Cultivation

Zhu Xi highly esteemed the two Chengs' theory of self-cultivation, particularly regarding Cheng Yi's doctrine of "maintaining reverential respect" as orthodox. At the same time, he clearly perceived the limitations of both and undertook the selection, supplementation, and systematic integration of their ideas, thoroughly reconstructing the framework of self-cultivation of virtue.

2.2.1 Inheritance: Adhering to the Tradition of Maintaining Reverence, Establishing the Basic Logic of Dual Advancement Internal and External

Zhu Xi fully endorsed the Chengs' proposition that reverence is the core of self-cultivation, praising Cheng Yi's statement that "self-cultivation requires reverential respect; the advancement of learning lies in the extension of knowledge," and declaring that "the most powerful contribution of Master Cheng to later learners is the single word 'reverential respect'" (Cheng xian sheng suo yi you gong yu hou xue zhe, zui shi jing zhi yi zi you li). He conceived of reverence as the core program permeating all moral activity.

Inheriting Cheng Yi's definition of "focusing on one thing without diversion," Zhu Xi distilled reverence as the foremost meaning of the sage's learning, and developed its connotation into three inseparable attributes: (1) restraint and concentration—constraining body and mind, neither indolent nor indulgent, focusing wholly on what ought to be done according to principle, and not led astray by selfish thoughts or external temptations; (2) permeating activity and tranquility—reverence dwells within the mind when nothing is happening, and reverence permeates the handling of affairs when something is happening, without partiality or interruption; (3) unity of inner and outer—inner reverence necessarily manifests in outward dignified bearing and proper conduct, with inner sincerity and outer ritual propriety completely unified.

Zhu Xi also retained the Chengs' basic logic of the mutual support of reverence and rightness, and the complementarity of self-cultivation and the extension of knowledge. Self-cultivation is the subjective precondition for the extension of knowledge, while the extension of knowledge is the substantive supplement to self-cultivation; the two reinforce each other and cannot be neglected. Only through maintaining reverence and self-cultivation can the mind remain in a state of luminous concentration, enabling one to truly investigate the principles of things; only through studying things to attain knowledge and thoroughly understanding Heavenly Principle can self-cultivation have genuine substantive support, avoiding degeneration into empty meditation.

2.2.2 Differentiation: Remedying the Coarseness of the Two Chengs, Constructing a Mature Practice That Integrates the Whole Spectrum

Zhu Xi believed the Chengs' thought on self-cultivation was more pioneering than precise, suffering from three deficiencies. Cheng Hao's self-cultivation emphasized ontological realization and neglected the acquired "learning of the lower" (xia xue), easily degenerating into Chan-like sudden enlightenment. Cheng Yi, though he proposed the dual framework of maintaining reverence and extending knowledge, did not clarify the complex relationship between reverence and activity/tranquility, or between the State of Equilibrium and the State of Harmony, nor did he specify the practical norms of self-cultivation in different situations. Neither deeply bound self-cultivation to the theory of mind-nature, leaving the practice without a metaphysical subjective foundation and practical grounding.

Drawing on his intellectual transition from the "old doctrine of equilibrium and harmony" (zhong he jiu shuo) to the "new doctrine" (zhong he xin shuo), and integrating Zhang Zai's theory that "the mind commands nature and feelings," Zhu Xi systematically reconstructed self-cultivation, achieving three key breakthroughs.

The first was integrating the State of Equilibrium and the State of Harmony, endowing self-cultivation with a complete practical form. Zhu Xi strictly distinguished the two states: "When thoughts have not yet arisen and things have not yet arrived" is the State of Equilibrium of joy, anger, sorrow, and pleasure, in which the mind is silent and unmoving, and the substance of nature is complete and whole; when stirred by things and the feelings emerge, the mind enters the state of responding and penetrating, which is the State of Harmony. He proposed that the work of maintaining reverence must cover both states, forming a dual logic: in the State of Equilibrium, tranquil preservation through meditation restrains body and mind, maintaining inner reverence and quietude, preventing selfish thoughts from intruding, and continuously nurturing the inherent awareness of the substance of nature; in the State of Harmony, active examination in the handling of affairs and the arousal of emotions, with reverence still permeating throughout, inspects every thought and corrects deviations in speech and conduct in a timely manner, treating examination as the continuation of self-cultivation. The result is mutual cultivation in both activity and tranquility—at no time without self-cultivation, at no time without examination.

The second breakthrough was providing a solid subjective foundation for self-cultivation through "the mind commands nature and feelings." Drawing on Zhang Zai, Zhu Xi clarified the substance-function relationship between mind, nature, and feelings: nature is the substance of the mind, the inherent nature endowed by Heavenly Principle, clear and perfectly good; feelings are the function of the mind, the concrete emotions and thoughts produced when nature is stirred by things; the mind is the master of the human body, commanding nature and feelings and permeating activity and tranquility. This structure clarifies the subject of self-cultivation: its essence is to use "reverence" to discipline the substance of the mind, keeping it always in a state of clear, luminous, concentrated, and unwavering awareness, thereby stabilizing the inherent goodness of the substance of nature and regulating emotions and conduct so that they do not exceed the boundaries of Heavenly Principle. This elevates self-cultivation from a mere behavioral practice to a practical theory with a clear mind-nature ontological foundation.

The third breakthrough was connecting Primary Learning (Xiaoxue) and Great Learning (Daxue), establishing a graded practical path for self-cultivation. Zhu Xi filled the gap left by the Chengs' lack of educational grounding, permeating the self-cultivation of virtue throughout the entire educational process of the two stages: Primary Learning emphasizes self-cultivation through practice, training the habit of sincere reverence through daily conduct such as sweeping, answering, and advancing and retreating, performing the work of "cultivating the root" (pei yong gen ben); Great Learning emphasizes cultivating the origin, building upon Primary Learning, thoroughly investigating the principles of things, transforming the already-formed habit of sincere reverence into conscious apprehension of Heavenly Principle, advancing from practice to knowledge, and from habit to conscious virtue.

2.3 Core Differences Between the Two Chengs' and Zhu Xi's Thought on Self-Cultivation

The foregoing analysis reveals that the core differences run along three axes. Cheng Hao takes "humaneness" as his core ontology and identifies self-cultivation with the preservation of an ontological realm, neglecting acquired learning and daily regulation and risking Chan-style sudden enlightenment. Cheng Yi establishes the dual framework of reverence and the extension of knowledge, defines reverence as "focusing on one thing without diversion," and takes the transformation of the physical endowment as his goal, yet leaves the relationship between reverence and activity/tranquility, and between Equilibrium and Harmony, under-theorized. Zhu Xi, building on both, distills reverence into three attributes—restraint and concentration, permeation of activity and tranquility, and unity of inner and outer—retains the logic of mutual support between reverence and rightness, and remedies the Chengs' coarseness through three breakthroughs: integrating Equilibrium and Harmony to give self-cultivation a complete practical form; grounding it in "the mind commands nature and feelings" to provide a mind-nature ontological foundation; and connecting Primary Learning and Great Learning to establish a graded educational path.

III. The Core of Theoretical Logic: The Central Position of Self-Cultivation of Virtue in Zhu Xi's Virtue-Ethical System

Zhu Xi regarded self-cultivation of virtue as the foundation of the Confucian teaching of becoming virtuous and the program of sage-learning. This positioning was not a subjective judgment but followed from the internal logic of his virtue-ethical system: from mind-nature ontology to moral practice, from cognitive work to personality formation, self-cultivation of virtue is the foundational prerequisite permeating all links and the key pivot connecting Heavenly Principle with actual virtue, and bridging inner mind-nature with external practice.

3.1 Self-Cultivation of Virtue as the Fundamental Foundation for Restoring Nature and Achieving Virtue

Zhu Xi's virtue-ethical system takes "nature is principle" (xing ji li) as its metaphysical cornerstone. The heavenly-endowed nature (tianming zhi xing) is pure and perfectly good, fully possessing the entire moral laws of humaneness, rightness, propriety, and wisdom. In reality, however, human beings are subject from birth to the dual obscuration of the partiality of innate physical endowment and the acquired desires of things. The inherent heavenly-endowed nature cannot manifest automatically; only through cultivation can one transform the physical endowment, remove the pollution of old habits, restore and illuminate the inherent good nature, and transform potential moral nature into actual stable virtue.

For Zhu Xi, the key to transforming the physical endowment and restoring Heavenly Principle is neither mere investigation of things and principle nor short-term deliberate self-restraint, but long-term and uninterrupted cultivation of moral character. The inertia of the physical endowment is extremely stubborn, and selfish desires arise at all times. Only through maintaining reverence and self-cultivation, constantly restraining body and mind and keeping the mind in a state of "luminous purity and unity" (xu ming chun yi), can one continuously nurture the inherent moral sprouts and prevent selfish thoughts from taking advantage of the situation. Only by first performing the foundational work of self-cultivation to "cultivate the root" and allowing the moral sprouts to mature, can subsequent studying things to attain knowledge, and self-restraint and return to propriety have a solid foundation.

In his Letter to Hu Guangzhong (Da Hu Guangzhong), he writes: "Yet one must have the merit of daily self-cultivation; only then can one recognize things when they arise. If one is completely without a master and only arranges things after they arrive, it will already be too late and insufficient for the matter" (Ran xu shi ping ri you han yang zhi gong, lin shi fang neng shi de, ruo mang ran dou wu zhu zai, shi zhi ran hou an pai, ze yi huan er bu ji yu shi yi). Without prior self-cultivation, the mind lacks a master, and attempting to distinguish moral principles and restrain selfish desires at the last moment will inevitably be too late for the correct moral choice. In the Zhuzi Yulei, he further uses the metaphor of cultivating plants: self-cultivation is like planting flowers and trees—one must water them daily without interruption so that the moral sprouts can gradually grow and transform the dross of the physical endowment. If self-cultivation is lacking and one relies solely on occasional investigation of principle, it is like planting flowers without watering them; the seeds cannot take root, and the moral sprouts will ultimately be extinguished by the physical endowment and selfish desires. Self-cultivation of virtue is thus the foundational prerequisite for restoring nature and achieving virtue; without it, all moral practice is empty talk.

3.2 Self-Cultivation of Virtue as the Subjective Guarantee for the Mutual Reinforcement of "Maintaining Reverence and Investigating Principle"

The core program of practice in Zhu Xi's virtue ethics, inherited from Cheng Yi, is "maintaining reverential respect and investigating principle" (ju jing qiong li). He explicitly proposed that "the learner's practice lies only in two things: maintaining reverential respect and investigating principle" (Xue zhe gong fu, wei zai ju jing, qiong li er shi), which constitute a complementary, bidirectionally interactive dialectical relationship. Maintaining reverence and self-cultivation is the subjective condition for investigating principle, while investigating principle is the substantive support for self-cultivation; the two reinforce each other and jointly advance the perfection of virtue.

Self-cultivation is the necessary prerequisite for investigating principle. The mind is the subject that cognizes Heavenly Principle, and the human mind inherently possesses the capacity to do so. Yet if the mind is scattered and indulgent, obscured by selfish desires, in a state of chaos, confusion, turbidity, and dullness, it cannot concentrate on investigating principle; even when reading the classics of sages and worthies or observing things, it will find it difficult to thoroughly understand the moral principles therein. Only through maintaining reverence and self-cultivation, restraining body and mind, eliminating selfish intentions, and restoring the mind to its inherent state of luminous concentration, can one possess the subjective condition for investigating principle and truly achieve "investigating the principle of things as they are encountered" (ji wu er qiong qi li). He repeatedly emphasized: "Without self-cultivation, there is no master… the moment one lets go or falls asleep, this matter has no one to direct it, it is governed by others, not by oneself" (Bu han yang ze wu zhu zai… cai fang xia huo kun shui, zhe shi bian wu ren zuo zhu, dou you bie ren, bu you zi jia). If self-cultivation is abandoned and the mind lacks a master, studying things to attain knowledge loses its subjective cognitive foundation and cannot truly exhaust Heavenly Principle.

Investigating principle, in turn, is the substantive supplement to self-cultivation. Zhu Xi opposed the form of self-cultivation that detaches from investigating principle and emptily preserves the mind. If one only speaks of maintaining reverence and self-cultivation without clarifying the principles of things as they ought to be through studying things to attain knowledge, self-cultivation degenerates into empty meditation, lacking genuine moral content, and may even flow into the Buddhist and Daoist practice of emptying the mind and preserving silence. Only through investigating principle and clarifying the concrete connotations of Heavenly Principle can one accurately restrain one's own speech and conduct in daily practice and correct deviations in emotions, enabling self-cultivation to be put into practice. The Heavenly Principle obtained through investigating principle is then continuously preserved and internalized in the mind, transforming into stable moral conviction.

In this interactive logic, self-cultivation is the key pivot connecting maintaining reverence and investigating principle, ensuring that the two are neither neglected nor separated, forming a complete cycle of "self-cultivation → investigating principle → self-cultivation → earnest practice," continuously advancing virtue from potential nature to conscious moral quality.

3.3 Self-Cultivation of Virtue as the Bridge Connecting "Cultivating Virtue Is the Foundation" and "Advancing Virtue and Cultivating Undertaking"

Zhu Xi inherited the core Confucian tenet that "cultivating virtue is the foundation" (xiu de shi ben), holding that morality is the premise of learning, conduct, and statecraft, and that all learning, undertakings, and practices must take cultivating virtue as their prerequisite. Self-cultivation of virtue is precisely the core bridge for realizing the cultivation of virtue and advancing the advancement of virtue and cultivation of undertaking, transforming inner moral preservation into external moral practice.

Self-cultivation is the point of entry for cultivating virtue. The essence of cultivating virtue lies in preserving the inherent good nature and overcoming unreasonable selfish desires, and self-cultivation is the most direct and daily practical path. When one is not yet engaged in handling affairs, through meditative restraint and reverence-preservation, one nurtures the inherent goodness of the substance of nature; when engaged in handling affairs, through examination and restraint, one constantly oversees speech and conduct, preventing the germination of thoughts that do not conform to Heavenly Principle. This practice of "at no time without self-cultivation, at no time without examination" is the concrete implementation of "cultivating virtue is the foundation," transforming the abstract requirement into operable daily practice.

Self-cultivation is also the driving support for advancing virtue and cultivating undertaking. "Advancing virtue and cultivating undertaking" (jin de xiu ye) originates from the Commentary on the Qian Hexagram of the Book of Changes (Zhouyi), referring to the continuous enhancement of morality and the cultivation of undertakings. Zhu Xi interpreted it as the process of continuous expansion and practice of virtue. The advancement of virtue is not achieved out of thin air but must rely on long-term accumulation through self-cultivation: through self-cultivation, the substance of the mind continuously remains luminous, the perception of Heavenly Principle becomes increasingly acute, and one can accurately distinguish right from wrong and act in accordance with principle in daily affairs. At the same time, the habit of sincere reverence formed through self-cultivation transforms into the firm will of moral practice, enabling one to persistently implement the norms of Heavenly Principle, not shaken by external temptations or selfish desires, and externalizing inner virtue cultivation into undertakings of ordering the state and bringing peace to the world, realizing the integration of "inner sageliness" into "outer kingliness."

Self-cultivation of virtue is thus the key link connecting "cultivating virtue" with "advancing virtue and cultivating undertaking": it is both the daily practice of cultivating virtue and the subjective guarantee for advancing virtue and cultivating undertaking, ensuring that all practical undertakings do not depart from the foundation of morality and achieving the unity of virtue and undertaking.

IV. Practical Orientation: Self-Cultivation of Virtue, Personality Education, and Rectifying the Scholar-Official Ethos and Academic Malpractices of the Southern Song

Zhu Xi's emphasis on self-cultivation of virtue extended beyond purely theoretical construction; it possessed a strong practical orientation. Proceeding from the laws governing moral formation, self-cultivation constitutes the necessary path for cultivating a complete personality. Beyond this, the academic and scholar-official ethos of the Southern Song was afflicted by serious biases and malpractices, which necessitated the work of self-cultivation to rectify and reinvigorate the Confucian tradition of moral practice.

4.1 The Foundation of Personality Education: Constructing a Graded Path of Moral Formation Integrating Primary Learning and Great Learning

Zhu Xi conceived the goal of moral education as "learning to become a sage" (xue yi cheng sheng), namely, restoring and illuminating the human being's inherent heavenly-endowed nature and cultivating the complete personality of a sage. Drawing upon the laws of human cognitive development, he divided education into two interconnected stages—Primary Learning (Xiaoxue) and Great Learning (Daxue)—with the self-cultivation of virtue serving as the core program connecting the two stages, thereby designing a comprehensive program for personality cultivation that proceeds stepwise from practice to knowledge.

4.1.1 Primary Learning Stage: Self-Cultivation through Practice, Forming the Mold of a Sage

Zhu Xi attached paramount importance to Primary Learning education, regarding it as the indispensable prerequisite for Great Learning. The core task of the Primary Learning stage consists in self-cultivation through practice, forming the daily habit of sincere reverence and thereby laying the foundation for virtue. In his view, children's cognitive abilities have not yet fully developed and they are incapable of engaging in abstract moral speculation. Accordingly, Primary Learning education does not impart profound moral principles but rather instructs concrete moral norms in daily life: how to be filial in serving one's parents, how to be respectful in serving one's elders, how to be trustworthy in one's friendships, how to conform to propriety in sweeping, answering, and advancing and retreating, and how to be dignified and proper in one's daily routines.

The self-cultivation practice at this stage focuses on "nurturing uprightness" (yang zheng): through repeated behavioral training, children develop upright habits imperceptibly, subtly transforming their temperament, restraining body and mind, and silently nurturing the moral sprouts. In the Preface to the Commentaries on the Great Learning (Daxue Zhangju Xu), Zhu Xi states that the teaching of Primary Learning consists in "to teach them the norms of sweeping, answering, and advancing and retreating, and the arts of ritual, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and mathematics" (jiao zhi yi sao sao, ying dui, jin tui zhi jie, li yue she yu shu shu zhi wen). Through these simple daily practices, children learn to restrain their body and mind and cultivate the habit of sincere reverence through concrete practice. He metaphorically observes that the self-cultivation practice of Primary Learning is akin to shaping the mold of a sage: although the moral principles have not yet been thoroughly investigated, a solid foundation for virtue has already been laid. When one grows up and undertakes studying things to attain knowledge in Great Learning, one will not deviate from the foundation of morality. If the self-cultivation of Primary Learning is deficient and children fail to develop the habit of sincere reverence from an early age, when they grow up and study moral principles, their minds will be scattered and indulgent, incapable of internalizing morality, and ultimately incapable of attaining virtue.

4.1.2 Great Learning Stage: Cultivating the Origin, Illuminating Virtue, and Investigating Principle to Extend Knowledge

Great Learning represents the deepening of the Primary Learning stage. Zhu Xi proposes that the task of Great Learning consists in "to teach them the way of investigating principle, rectifying the mind, cultivating oneself, ordering the state, and bringing peace to the world" (jiao zhi yi qiong li, zheng xin, xiu ji, zhi ren zhi dao). Building upon the habit of sincere reverence and conduct formed in Primary Learning, one further cultivates the origin, elevating daily behavioral habits into conscious moral cognition and achieving the unity of practice and knowledge.

Self-cultivation at the Great Learning stage is no longer confined to external behavioral training but directly preserves the mind through the substance of the mind. "Half a day reading books, half a day sitting in meditation" (ban ri du shu, ban ri jing zuo): through meditation one observes the State of Equilibrium of joy, anger, sorrow, and pleasure and preserves the inherent substance of nature; through reading and investigating principle, one deeply studies the Heavenly Principle inherent in things, expanding and integrating the principles in the mind accumulated through daily self-cultivation, and clarifying the metaphysical ground underlying virtue. At this juncture, self-cultivation has been transformed from passive behavioral training into active mind-nature realization, deeply integrating the habit of sincere reverence formed in Primary Learning with the cognition of Heavenly Principle, transforming virtue from natural behavioral habit into conscious moral conviction, and then externalizing this conviction into the practice of ordering the state and bringing peace to the world, thereby completing the perfection of personality.

In Zhu Xi's educational logic, the self-cultivation through practice in Primary Learning and the cultivation of the origin in Great Learning are different grades of the same practice, sequentially connected and mutually indispensable: Primary Learning provides the behavioral foundation for Great Learning, while Great Learning provides the moral-principle support for Primary Learning. Through continuous self-cultivation, integrating daily moral practice with profound moral speculation, one cultivates a complete virtuous personality step by step.

4.2 The Strategy for Rectifying Malpractices of the Time: Addressing the Fragmentation and One-Sidedness of the Southern Song Academic and Scholar-Official Ethos

In the Southern Song academic world and scholar-official community where Zhu Xi lived, the ethos was distorted and fragmented, characterized by two extreme biases that seriously undermined the Confucian tradition of moral practice. Zhu Xi regarded self-cultivation of virtue as the appropriate remedy, addressing both simultaneously.

4.2.1 Breaking the Polarized Split Between "Honoring the Virtuous Nature" and "Following the Path of Inquiry and Learning"

Within the Southern Song academic world, the school of mind represented by Lu Jiuyuan advocated "inventing the original mind" and "honoring the virtuous nature" (zun de xing), despising reading, investigating principle, and daily practice, maintaining that one could directly apprehend Heavenly Principle and achieve virtue solely through introspective sudden enlightenment. Meanwhile, another group of Confucians emphasized "following the path of inquiry and learning" (dao wen xue), indulging in textual exegesis and empty discourse on moral principles, neglecting inner mind-nature cultivation and daily moral practice, thereby turning studying things to attain knowledge into a purely intellectual pursuit disconnected from their own physical and mental morality.

Zhu Xi believed the root cause of these two extremes lay in the absence of a complete self-cultivation practice. The Lu school of mind merely emphasized introspection while neglecting the practice of "learning of the lower," and its so-called "inventing the original mind" lacked the behavioral foundation of daily self-cultivation, easily lapsing into the empty sudden enlightenment of Chan Buddhism. Those who emphasized knowledge focused exclusively on investigating principle while lacking the subjective support of mind-nature cultivation, so that the moral principles they obtained could not be internalized in the mind, and knowledge became completely disconnected from morality.

Self-cultivation of virtue, Zhu Xi proposed, is the key to resolving this split. It integrates inner and outer, permeates activity and tranquility, neither detaching from daily human relationships nor neglecting inner mind-nature; it values both inner preservation in the State of Equilibrium and outer examination in the State of Harmony; it couples the inner cultivation of honoring the virtuous nature with the outer inquiry of following the path of inquiry and learning into a single practice, thereby forming a practical logic of dual advancement inward and outward and the unity of knowledge and action, bridging the split between introspection and outer seeking, and between practice and cognition in Confucianism at that time.

4.2.2 Rectifying the Practical Bias of "Valuing the Inner over the Outer" and "Valuing Tranquility over Activity"

The Dao-nan school and Hu-Xiang school of the Two Songs, inheriting the deviations of Cheng Hao's later disciples, one-sidedly emphasized "sitting silently to purify the mind" and "realizing the State of Equilibrium," equating self-cultivation with meditation, valuing only inner realization in tranquility while despising daily examination in activity; valuing only the ontological realm of apprehending Heavenly Principle while neglecting the moral practice of daily human affairs, advocating "only go and realize Heavenly Principle in tranquility," thereby completely severing the dialectical relationship between activity and tranquility, and between the State of Equilibrium and the State of Harmony.

Zhu Xi incisively pointed out the fatal flaw: "People today are all one-sided; they understand inner affairs but ignore all outer affairs" (Jin ren dou shi pian ku, li hui nei shi, bian wai shi dou bu guan). If one merely emphasizes self-cultivation in tranquility while neglecting examination in activity, it leads to the absurd consequence of "daily cultivating the origin but being unable to apply it when facing affairs"—usually emptily preserving the mind and meditating in realization, but once confronted with actual affairs, the substance of the mind remains scattered and incapable of implementing the apprehended Heavenly Principle into correct moral choices.

Zhu Xi employed his complete theory of self-cultivation—which integrates activity and tranquility, and the State of Equilibrium and the State of Harmony—to vigorously rectify this bias. He explicitly proposed that "reverence" permeates all states of activity and tranquility: "When nothing is happening, reverential respect is within; when something is happening, reverential respect is on the affair. Whether there is something happening or not, my reverential respect is never interrupted" (Wu shi shi jing zai li mian, you shi shi jing zai shi shang, you shi wu shi, wu zhi jing wei chang jian duan ye). Self-cultivation encompasses not only tranquil preservation in the State of Equilibrium but also active examination in the State of Harmony; learners must continuously examine their own speech and conduct in the daily handling of affairs and interpersonal relationships, correct emotional deviations, and consolidate the effects of self-cultivation in practice. Through self-cultivation of virtue, combining preservation in tranquility with examination in activity, Zhu Xi guided scholar-officials to return to the Confucian practical tradition of "learning of the lower reaching up to the higher" (xia xue shang da) and daily practice, thereby rectifying the empty, arid, and detached academic and scholar-official ethos of the time.

V. The Theoretical Mission of Defending the Way: Self-Cultivation of Virtue as the Confucian Bulwark Against Buddhist Heterodoxy

Since the Wei and Jin dynasties, Buddhist and Daoist teachings had been prevalent, posing a severe theoretical challenge to the core values and practical paths of Confucianism. Buddhism advocated "seeing one's nature and becoming a Buddha" (jian xing cheng fo), promoting meditative emptying of the mind and elimination of thoughts, while denying the moral value of real-world human relationships. Daoism advocated "guarding qi and nurturing nature" (shou qi yang xing), despising human affairs and detaching from social reality. The mind-nature cultivation theories of both were formally similar to Confucian self-cultivation practice, yet their essential goals and practical paths completely deviated from Confucian human-relationship Heavenly Principle, seriously undermining the foundation of Confucian virtue ethics. Zhu Xi's emphasis on self-cultivation of virtue was accompanied by a clear theoretical consciousness of the Confucian-Buddhist distinction (Ru Shi zhi bian), employing the essential Confucian attributes of self-cultivation to draw boundaries with Buddhism and Daoism and defend Confucian orthodoxy.

5.1 Distinguishing the Essential Differences Between Confucian and Buddhist Cultivation

In his early years, Zhu Xi had "ventured into Buddhism and Daoism" for more than a decade and had developed a deep understanding of their mind-nature cultivation theories. After returning to Confucianism, he clearly distinguished the essential differences between Confucian self-cultivation and Buddhist and Daoist cultivation, pointing out that the two were completely opposed in three dimensions: practical goal, practical content, and practical field.

Their practical goals are fundamentally distinct. Buddhist cultivation takes "emptiness of mind" (xin kong) as its ultimate goal, advocating the view that "as long as the mind is empty, that is seeing nature" (dan neng xin kong, ji shi jian xing), requiring practitioners to extinguish attachments to real-world human relationships and affairs, break all secular moral norms, and pursue the realm of empty-minded extinction. Confucian self-cultivation of virtue, by contrast, aims at "preserving Heavenly Principle and eliminating human desires" (cun tian li, qu ren yu), preserving the heavenly-endowed nature of humaneness, rightness, propriety, and wisdom, transforming the physical endowment, restoring and illuminating Heavenly Principle, and attaining a virtuous personality conforming to human-relationship Heavenly Principle. The value goals of the two are diametrically opposed.

Their practical contents differ. Buddhist cultivation "empties the mind without attending to principle" (kong qi xin er bu li yu li), emphasizing only meditative purification of the mind and elimination of thoughts, without investigating the Heavenly Principle inherent in things, nor constraining oneself with concrete moral rituals and norms. Confucian self-cultivation of virtue takes "reverence" as its core, simultaneously coupled with studying things to attain knowledge and the practice of returning to propriety (fu li), with "investigating principle" and "preserving the mind" running in parallel. Through external ritual norms and daily moral practice, it assists inner mind-nature preservation, completely unifying inner reverence with outer ritual propriety, with clear moral content and moral norms.

Their practical fields differ. Buddhism advocates leaving the secular world, living in seclusion in mountains and forests, abandoning daily human affairs, family responsibilities, and social obligations, and cultivating the mind in meditation in an environment isolated from the world. Confucian self-cultivation of virtue must be completed in daily human relationships: "There is no need to leave the world and reject customs; one simply performs practice in daily affairs" (Bu bi li shi jue su, zhi jiu ri yong jian zuo gong fu). In the daily affairs of serving parents, serving rulers, making friends, and responding to things, one continuously examines speech and conduct and nurtures the moral sprouts, attaining virtue in real social human relationships rather than escaping from the secular world.

5.2 Defending Confucian Orthodoxy Through the Integrative Nature of Self-Cultivation

Zhu Xi discovered that Buddhist meditative cultivation was formally highly similar to Confucian self-cultivation in the State of Equilibrium. At that time, many Confucians could not distinguish the essential difference between the two, mistakenly regarding Buddhist empty-minded meditation as Confucian self-cultivation, and ultimately deviating from the fundamental Confucian moral ground. His own constructed complete theory of self-cultivation—which integrates activity and tranquility, encompasses both preservation and examination, and couples self-cultivation with the extension of knowledge—was precisely the key bulwark for fundamentally separating Confucianism from Buddhism at the practical level and defending orthodoxy.

Zhu Xi used the integrative nature of "reverence" to counter Buddhist "emptiness and quietude" (kong ji). Confucian reverence-self-cultivation is not passive empty-minded preservation of tranquility but a full-spectrum practice permeating activity and tranquility, being and non-being: in the State of Equilibrium, reverence is a state of "cautious and apprehensive" (jie shen kong ju) vigilance, not allowing the mind to be empty of all things, but keeping it concentrated and reverentially respectful, preventing selfish thoughts from intruding; in the State of Harmony, reverence permeates the entire process of handling affairs, constantly overseeing speech and conduct and acting in accordance with principle. This active cultivation of "there must be something happening" (bi you shi yan) is essentially different from Buddhist "not thinking of good, not thinking of evil" (bu si shan, bu si e) empty-minded meditation, fundamentally dispelling the theoretical confusion of Buddhist cultivation.

Zhu Xi also bound self-cultivation with studying things to attain knowledge and return to propriety, thereby fundamentally anchoring the Confucian human-relationship foundation. Confucian self-cultivation of virtue absolutely does not detach from studying things to attain knowledge and return to propriety: studying things to attain knowledge means clarifying the Heavenly Principle of human relationships through studying Confucian classics and examining past and present affairs; return to propriety means constraining one's own speech and conduct according to Confucian ritual norms and implementing Heavenly Principle into daily behavioral practice. This path closely binds mind-nature cultivation with real-world human relationships and the social moral order, fundamentally drawing a boundary with the Buddhist "rejecting human relationships and emptying the single mind" (ping ren lun, kong yi xin), proving that only Confucian self-cultivation of virtue can sustain moral human relationships and attain an ideal personality in real society, thereby successfully defending Confucian orthodoxy and dispelling the theoretical impact of Buddhist heterodoxy on Confucianism. 

Zhu Xi's theoretical construction of "self-cultivation of virtue" represents a systematic inheritance, integration, and theoretical transcendence of the two Chengs' thought. He inherited Cheng Yi's core proposition of "reverence-self-cultivation," while abandoning the biases of the two Chengs, and, taking "reverence" as the unifying thread, connected the State of Equilibrium with the State of Harmony, inner mind-nature with outer practice, daily practice in Primary Learning with the investigation of principle and fulfillment of nature in Great Learning, and self-cultivation with the extension of knowledge, thereby constructing a complete, precise, and practically grounded system of virtue cultivation.

Three layers of deep logic, from inner to outer, underlie Zhu Xi's elevation of self-cultivation of virtue to the core program of Confucian virtue ethics and moral education.

The first is the ontological logic of inner moral formation: self-cultivation of virtue is the fundamental prerequisite for restoring nature and attaining virtue, and the subjective guarantee for maintaining reverence and investigating principle. It continuously preserves the inherent moral sprouts, restrains body and mind, transforms the physical endowment, and transforms the potential heavenly-endowed nature into actual stable virtue.

The second is the practical logic of moral education: self-cultivation of virtue permeates the entire educational process of Primary Learning and Great Learning. Through stepwise behavioral training and mind-nature preservation, it gradually transforms external moral norms into inner moral conviction and cultivates the complete personality of a sage.

The third is the practical logic of responding to the challenges of the time: internally, it can rectify the empty academic ethos of the Southern Song that valued the inner over the outer and valued sudden enlightenment over practice, thereby reorganizing the Confucian tradition of "learning of the lower reaching up to the higher"; externally, through the unique Confucian path of human-relationship self-cultivation, it can be distinguished from the empty-minded cultivation of Buddhist and Daoist heterodoxy, defending the Confucian moral orthodoxy centered on Heavenly Principle and maintaining the Confucian human-relationship value order.

In summary, Zhu Xi's thought on self-cultivation of virtue transformed Confucian mind-nature cultivation theory from empty realm realization and coarse cultivation techniques into a complete moral practice system encompassing ontology, practice, practical application, and educational grades. This theory not only profoundly shaped the Confucian moral education tradition after the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, becoming the basic path for later Confucians to cultivate themselves and nurture their nature, but also, with its practical characteristics of emphasizing daily practice, valuing subjective moral consciousness, and advocating dual advancement inward and outward, provides traditional resources worthy of reference for contemporary civic moral construction and personality education, possessing theoretical value and practical significance that transcend time and space.

Notes

[1] Weifa (未發, "Equilibrium"): A category in the mind-nature theory of Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism. The Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong) states: "When joy, anger, sorrow, and pleasure have not yet arisen, this is called equilibrium (zhong); when they have arisen and all attain due measure, this is called harmony (he)." The two Cheng brothers further developed this, stating: "Once there is thinking, that is already the State of Harmony" (Ji si ji shi yi fa), and "Only when joy, anger, sorrow, and pleasure have not arisen is that equilibrium" (Zhi xi nu ai le bu fa bian shi zhong) (Yishu, juan 18). Zhu Xi elaborated more explicitly in two senses. First, "the State of Equilibrium" refers to the psychological state when thoughts and emotions have not yet germinated—"taking the time when thoughts have not yet germinated and things have not yet arrived as the State of Equilibrium of joy, anger, sorrow, and pleasure" (Collected Writings, Discourse on Equilibrium and Harmony). Second, it refers to the inner ground of emotions, namely nature (xing): "Joy, anger, sorrow, and pleasure are feelings (qing); their State of Equilibrium is nature (xing), which is without partiality, hence called equilibrium" (Commentary on the Doctrine of the Mean). Regarding "the State of Equilibrium" as a method of moral cultivation, Cheng Yi held: "If one speaks of preservation and cultivation at the time when joy, anger, sorrow, and pleasure have not yet arisen, that is permissible; if one speaks of seeking equilibrium before the time when joy, anger, sorrow, and pleasure have not yet arisen, that is not permissible" (Yishu, juan 18). Lü Dalin advocated that "one should seek before the time when joy, anger, sorrow, and pleasure have not yet arisen" (ibid.), while Yang Shi maintained that "the learner should realize it with the mind at the juncture when joy, anger, sorrow, and pleasure have not yet arisen" (Guishan Collected Writings, juan 4). In his early years, Zhu Xi took the mind as "the State of Harmony" and nature as "the State of Equilibrium"; later he took reverence-self-cultivation as the practice in the State of Equilibrium, especially valuing the cultivation of "being cautious and apprehensive even when not seen or heard" (jie shen bu du, kong ju bu wen). [Reference: Fang Keli, ed.; Lu Yusan, Lü Xichen, Zhou Defeng, assoc. eds. Dictionary of Chinese Philosophy. Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 1994, p. 184.]

[2] Yifa (已發, "Harmony"): A category in the mind-nature theory of Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism, opposite to "the State of Equilibrium" (weifa). It originates from The Doctrine of the Mean: "When joy, anger, sorrow, and pleasure have not yet arisen, this is called equilibrium; when they have arisen and all attain due measure, this is called harmony." Originally it refers to the germination of the seven feelings. Cheng Yi said: "Once there is thinking, that is already the State of Harmony, the same as joy, anger, sorrow, and pleasure" (Henan Chengshi Yishu, juan 18), using the State of Harmony to refer to both thought and emotion. Zhu Xi discussed the State of Harmony in different senses. First, it refers to the state of psychological activity after thoughts and emotions have germinated—"It is just this mind; it naturally has its moments of Equilibrium and its moments of Harmony" (Zhuzi Yulei, juan 62). Second, it refers to feelings (qing) as the outer manifestation of nature, including the "four beginnings" (si duan) and the "seven feelings" (qi qing): "Joy, anger, sorrow, and pleasure are feelings; their State of Equilibrium is nature" (Commentary on the Doctrine of the Mean). "The four beginnings are feelings; nature is principle; what arises is feeling, and its root is nature" (Zhuzi Yulei, juan 5). [Reference: Fang Keli, ed.; Lu Yusan, Lü Xichen, Zhou Defeng, assoc. eds. Dictionary of Chinese Philosophy. Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 1994, p. 52.]

References

Zhang Liwen, ed. Dictionary of Zhu Xi (Zhu Xi Da Cidian). Shanghai: Shanghai Dictionary Publishing House, Shanghai Century Publishing Co., Ltd., 2013.

Fang Keli, ed.; Lu Yusan, Lü Xichen, Zhou Defeng, assoc. eds. Dictionary of Chinese Philosophy (Zhongguo Zhexue Da Cidian). Beijing: China Social Sciences Press, 1994.

Zhu Xi. Classified Conversations of Master Zhu (Zhuzi Yulei).

Zhu Xi. Collected Writings of Master Zhu (Zhu Wengong Wenji).

Zhu Xi. Collected Commentaries on the Four Books (Sishu Zhangju Jizhu).

Cheng Hao, Cheng Yi. Henan Chengshi Yishu (Surviving Works of the Henan Cheng Brothers).

The Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong).

The Book of Changes (Zhouyi).

Zhu Xi; the Two Cheng Brothers; self-cultivation of virtue; maintaining reverential respect; virtue ethics; theory of gongfu; Confucian-Buddhist distinction

Philosophy    Chinese Philosophy    中国哲学领域
Philosophy    Neo-Confucianism    宋明理学
Philosophy    Song Dynasty Philosophy    宋代哲学
Thinkers    Zhu Xi (Master Zhu)    朱熹
Thinkers    Cheng Hao & Cheng Yi    二程
Ethics    Virtue Ethics    德性伦理
Ethics    Moral Cultivation    道德修养
Practice    Self-Cultivation    涵养 / 修身
Practice    Reverential Respect (Jing)    主敬
Education    Confucian Education    儒家教育
Comparative    Confucian-Buddhist Dialogue    儒佛之辨
Theory    Mind-Nature Theory    心性论